Æthelstan - The Warrior King

Perhaps the greatest King of England

A Uniting Force Inspirited by Alfred

When reading through the history of Æthelstan’s reign as King of England there is one defining feature that stick out to me. Æthelstan seems to represent and embody the final ideal of Alfred the Great’s project and objective in unifying the English land and people. Where Alfred may have set this course, and Edward the Elder may have progressed it at further set the scene for its finality, Æthelstan finished it, and he finished it in a mighty and comprehensive manner. Every aspect to Æthelstan’s life and reign seems to be embodied by this spirit of English unity. Æthelstan took Alfred’s project of uniting the English people to its logical end point, and ended up with control over the whole of Britain. For Æthelstan to have achieved this in the short time that he did is a monumental feat that proves his position in history as fairly unjust. One would think that such a unifying and important figure in the defining history of England and Britain would capture the imaginations of the English people, but in a similar way to his father, and probably in a more unjust way, Æthelstan remains in Alfred’s shadow.

Now, I have my beliefs as to why Æthelstan is not captured in the cultural zeitgeist, and it is not due to a lack of historical information, as there is a distinctive dearth of information for Alfred compared to Æthelstan. But I believe that the layman on the street wouldn’t know of Æthelstan because of the mythological shadow cast by Alfred (outlined in Edward the Elder’s essay), and because Æthelstan did not secure his lineage. Alfred’s story captures the imagination of the reader and the public. Saving his Kingdom from the clutches of doom and devils, to then fight back to an even stronger position than before, uniting kingdoms, educating the realm, and decentralising power is a powerful story. That is why Alfred is remembered. Æthelstan’s story does not carry this weight as he wasn’t the underdog. Æthelstan’s history is also forgotten because he didn’t secure his history. Æthelstan remained chaste and without children for his reign, which is a decision that I think was taken to keep his Kingdom united. But it is also a decision that meant his lineage didn’t carry on through his bloodline. We therefore do not have his children to compare and see himself reborn through. Subconsciously this is an important feature of the monarchy. We want to see the continuity embodied through a person and people. This is the symbolic power of the monarchy. Further, Æthelstan’s Kingdom did not survive his death. Whilst not strictly his fault, once Æthelstan was out of the picture, the unified England and conquered Britain collapsed. The lack of stability following Æthelstan’s reign may weaken people’s view of his importance in establishing the country.

This essay is not about how and why Æthelstan is largely forgotten in the culture, nor is it about why Alfred’s story is so powerful. This is about how Æthelstan was such a uniting figure for England during his reign. Æthelstan united the Anglo-Saxon and Danish realms of England to forge the one united country of England. He did this through conquest, political manoeuvres, and spirituality. He was a uniting force that carried on his grandfather’s project and projected England through the political standings of Europe to influence much of the continent and the rest of the British Isles. Each way in which Æthelstan unifies his realm shows a distinctly Æthelstan-style of rulership and provides insight into the type of man that he was. Æthelstan was a strong, and tactically minded man, able to coordinate and conduct successful and complicated military campaigns, but also to conduct sophisticated political manoeuvres to solidify and enhance his and his country’s continental standing. No evidence or depiction of nefarious or clandestine behaviour besmirches Æthelstan’s leadership or personality in any of his actions or records. The historical record of Æthelstan portrays a highly competent, inspiring, strong, and unifying leader, that was able to establish his right to rule through various means. His dedication to spirituality and sacrifice shows an understanding of the dedication and responsibility that a King must have to aptly rule over his people. In many ways, Æthelstan is the model English King, both in an historical sense, and in a symbolic sense.

Unity Through Conquest

 There is no doubt that Æthelstan was a mighty ruler, true to the tradition of Anglo-Saxon Kings in his propensity and proficiency in warfare. This proficiency was likely developed through Æthelstan’s upbringing in Mercia. Æthelstan’s father Edward the Elder was himself quite an expansionist and fought many military campaigns against the Danelaw, to which he won his Kingdom many successes. Edward the Elder’s sister also won a reputation as a Warrior-Queen in the Kingdom of Mercia. She fought many coordinated campaigns alongside her brother against the occupying Danes, but Æthelflaed also managed to balance these battles with ongoing war with the Northern Welsh. Æthelstan grew up in this war-rampant Mercia under the sovereignty and tutelage of his aunt Æthelflaed. During his teens, Æthelstan grew up fighting for and expanding his father's Kingdom in some of the most successful military campaigns against the Danes to date in Anglo-Saxon history. These battles began unsettling the power dynamics of a currently divided land of England. As the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms began to foray and reclaim land in the Danelaw during Edward the Elder’s reign, it primed Æthelstan’s reign for either brutal retaliation, or total domination.

Soon into Æthelstan’s reign in the year 926, Æthelstan began to secure his Northern border by marrying his only known full sister to King Sihtric, the Danish King in York. This immediately stabilised the Northern border and secured the land gained by his father in the preceding campaigns. It also proved a profoundly fortuitous political manoeuvre when in the following year the Danish King Sihtric died. As other grandson’s of Ivarr the Boneless saw this as an opportunity to invade from Ireland and claim the land as theirs, it also opened an opportunity for Æthelstan to invade the Danelaw under the pretence of rescuing his widowed sister in hostile territory. It just so happened that rescuing his sister also involved capturing York and consolidating it into his Kingdom. Wessex now spanned from Cornwall to Kent, to Manchester and to York. England was beginning to take shape. This immediate invasion following the death of King Sihtric exhibits Æthelstan’s aggressive political strategy and confidence in confrontation. A confidence that could only have been developed in a youth invading and reclaiming land settled and conquered by the Danes.

So it is true that unity can be achieved through conquest as these lands were not to be contested until the death of Æthelstan in 939. But Æthelstan’s conquest wasn’t yet done. York was but a springboard from which to further consolidate the Northumbrians and the Scots into his newly unified Kingdoms. Unfortunately, the sources record this significant campaign with typical brevity, ‘King Æthelstan went into Scotland with both a land force and a naval force, and ravaged much of it’. The significance of this campaign cannot be understated though. The reality is that in 934, King Æthelstan took a combined land and naval force into Scotland for reasons that remain unclear. Whether it be to quell a potential threat, or simply to complete his grandfather’s vision of a unified island of Britain, Æthelstan invaded. The mission was an extremely successful campaign, ravaging the North as far North as Caithness in Scotland and claiming a decisive victory. Æthelstan then took the son of the Scotch King back to Wessex as hostage to prevent further rebellions. By Autumn in 934, the royal court had returned to the South once more. The scope and scale achieved by Æthelstan in 934 in his Norther military conquests is incredible to think about compared to the direst state of Wessex when Alfred ruled. Conducting a joint land and naval pincer movement in Scotland and winning a battle as far North as Caithness is a huge military and logistical feat.

In 937, Æthelstan’s enemies regrouped as the Irish Vikings in Dublin joined forces with the armies of both King Constantin of the Scotch and King Owain of Wales. The conflict the surmounted between this trident of celts against the newly unified English would be a battle sung in the annals and commemorated as The Battle of Brunanburh. Defeat at Brunanburh would not only mean the death of Æthelstan, but it would mean the death of the English project. Northumbria would be returned to Norse rule and Mercia would be put back under threat from the Danes. The Battle of Brunanburh is commemorated in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle poem and depicts the epic fight for England. The grandsons of Alfred are there at the front, fighting harmoniously at the head of a unified Wessex, Mercian, Kentish, East Anglian, and Northumbrian army. Five Kingdoms of the heptarchy were unified against this Celtish trident. These are English heroes, born from a mythological dynasty that are defending their lands and people against foreign, pagan enemies. According to the poem, at the end of the day, five young kings lay on the battlefield, ‘stretched lifeless by the sword, and with them seven of Olaf’s earls and a countless host of seamen and of Scots’. The Battle of Brunanburh is such an epic and decisive victory against all of Æthelstan's enemies that solidifies his military prowess against all assailants and enemies of England. The Battle of Brunanburh is a battle that defined the country of England. It was an opportunity for these newly unified people to defend their newly unified land, against the enemies that represent the old version of the country. It is one of the mythologically defining moments for England, and for Æthelstan. The conquest, battle, and warrior-King was able to unify England through this military violence.

So decisive are Æthelstan's military victories that he needn't prove himself any further to his enemies that surrounded him on all fronts. No further questions of sovereignty or supremacy were raised politically or militarily. Little is known of Æthelstan’s final years, other than that no battles or military engagements ensued. His prowess was renowned throughout Europe, as Kingdoms on the Continent requested his support and blessings in their claims to thrones. England however was safe. A testament to Æthelstan’s prowess is that only upon Æthelstan’s death, would King Olaf re-attempt to invade and lay claim to Mercia. A manoeuvre that would not have been attempted during Æthelstan’s reign.

From the victory at Brunanburh, the Chronicle’s purposeful diction of Æthelstan as the grandson of Alfred draws our imaginations to the dynastic project of a unified England and Britain. The genealogical reference is apt in following the line of succession and the trajectory of the British people to be unified under one ruler. At the Battle of Brunanburh, Alfred’s legacy, Alfred’s strength, Alfred’s leadership, and Alfred’s blood ran true through his grandson’s triumph. The battle of Brunanburh is a significant battle that signifies and defines Æthelstan's and therefore England's supremacy in Europe. But it also signifies the defining moment for his newly forged country of England. It is the moment that England established itself against foreign invaders. This is how Æthelstan' unified through conquest.

Political Unity and Leadership

In modern politics, leaders are often analysed and assessed based on both their domestic policy and their international policy. The same method can be applied to figures further into the historic record.

Æthelstan was a politically unifying figure in the Kingdoms of England right from the outset. This is symbolically shown in his choice of location for his coronation at Kingston. Kingston geographically borders Wessex, Mercia, and Essex. It shows a willingness to change to the changing lands for which he is sovereign, and is a decision to unite along the border of Wessex, Mercia, and Essex, as opposed to the capital of Wessex, Winchester. It is a unifying choice by the King.

Secondly, Æthelstan’s first political manoeuvre was to marry his sister to the Danish King Sihtric.  Æthelstan stabilised his Northern border with a peace with its leader Sihtric. When Sihtric died, Æthelstan took advantage of the situation by invading in 927 and capturing York before the Irish Vikings could. The political manoeuvring here involved his marrying of his sister to Sihtric in the year previously. This gave him the motive to rescue his relative in foreign territory, whilst realistically expanding his power.

Æthelstan’s rule over England was the first of its kind. He had to rule over four distinct geographies, ethnicities and peoples. This is a type of leadership that had not been asked of any Anglo-Saxon ruler to date. The people of Wessex, Kent, Essex, Mercia, and Northumbria all were to be ruled by one leader. Æthelstan combatted this difficulty in a typically Alfredian, and what has now evolved to be a typically English way; via decentralisation. In Æthelstan’s newly conquered lands, Æthelstan was not to replace the existing aristocracy and place them under direct Anglo-Saxon control, but he was to use local representatives to report to him and rule in their own way their own lands according to their own customs. These new thegns and councillors were included in Æthelstan’s court and enabled the promotion distinct differences between the Kingdom, whilst underlining the unifying feature between them all, that Æthelstan was their King.

Æthelstan’s political prowess was also felt abroad on the continent. Due to Æthelstan’s military prowess, he was a relied upon figure in Europe when it came to military affairs. This gave him credence in influencing outcomes on the continent. Following his consolidation in Scotland, Æthelstan felt sufficiently reassured to take an armed retinue to accompany his nephew back to Frankia, and send a naval fleet to take his foster-son home to Brittany. Louis was then to reclaim France. Another of his foster-sons, Hakon was then sent back to Norway with Æthelstan’s blessings (and likely military aid) to reclaim the Kingdom of Norway. It is during these times, when Æthelstan looked to influence outside his Kingdom, that his enemies began to assemble in the North. This influence however, does show Æthelstan’s political savvy in being able to ally on an intimate level – being the foster-father of future external Kingdoms – with Europeans, which in turn allowed him to secure that front and focus his efforts on Celtic would-be usurpers.

The prevalence of foster-sons also brings a unique element to Æthelstan’s leadership as King of England. No other King had such dedication to raising future Kings of other countries, whilst not raising one of his own flesh and blood for his own country. The care that Æthelstan shows in fostering these children from all over Europe, and the influence that this gives him in creating alliances throughout the continent adds an interesting, intellectual, and savvy dynamic to Æthelstan's character. When put in context of his celibacy as well, it highlights how every element of Æthelstan’s life was dedicated to the unification of his country. Æthelstan’s lack of pursuit for an heir is uncharacteristic for an English King. But it does however show a clear indication of how Æthelstan intended the succession of the throne. It was to go to his half-brother. Many disputes would have been saved from this decision. Whether his brother was fit for the throne is another question. The question that is answered to Æthelstan’s celibacy is does Æthelstan care more about his lineage, or more about the unity of his Kingdoms.

Spiritual Unity

There seems to be an ongoing interesting dynamic in the Anglo-Saxon Kings in balancing their Christian virtues and their warrior tradition. Their version of Christianity is worth defending and fighting for, even worth putting your enemies to the sword for. Where Æthelstan vehemently progressed his unification project through rapid, military expansionism Northwards, he also deepened the unification within his borders spiritually. Æthelstan was a devout and pious Christian. Æthelstan is similar once again to Alfred in this way, and exhibits greater piety than his father did. Perhaps this is more a result of Æthelstan’s generation being the one that was able to capitalise on the educational reform spurred on by Alfred. Æthelstan's court that he held, filled with religious scholars from the European as well as Celtic world, and Æthelstan's dedication to his church is a testament to his efforts at spiritual unity. In fact the remaining prominent image of Æthelstan is one of him bowing to St. Cuthbert and receiving the Word from him during his religious studies.

Regardless of the spiritual truth of Christianity, all religions are clearly a useful tool for unification for a ruler. It is obvious from the sources that Æthelstan's devotion and belief is sincere, but there is no getting away from the fact that Christianity can also be a political tool. This does not make the belief system any less true. But it is a true that a shared belief system amongst a people is a unifying force that links kith and kin through place and time.

I think that Æthelstan's devotion to Christianity is one of deep spiritual understanding rather than Machiavellian politicking, but either way, his relationship with the Church was clearly one of a strong and reciprocal nature. The clergy in 10^th Century England are often the moral authority of the land. They are the people that spend regular time with the people of England, advising them on how to behave and how to worship. Æthelstan's relationship with the church and the clergy is one of high regard and one shows how positively the clergy may influence the people of the nation and either unify or divide. Thanks to Æthelstan's spiritual devotion, the clergy were a unifying force. There exist many lists detailing Æthelstan's generosity to the church in bestowing them land and grants to various parts of the country. Whether it be Abingdon, Bath, Beverley, Christ Church. St. Augustine’s, Canterbury, Chertsey, St. Buryan in Cornwall, St. Paul’s, London, Ripon, then Old Minster at Winchester, the Holy Trinity Church in Winchester, or Worcester, Æthelstan's name is given as the authority of their deeds. Whether these records are falsified or not is irrelevant. Either Æthelstan proved generous to these clergies and reaped the rewards of that generosity, or the clergy saw Æthelstan in such a positive and Christ-loving way that they deemed him the King to which they would secure their grants with.

Æthelstan’s devotion to Christianity was one particularly focussed around his worship and veneration of the saints. Æthelstan spent a vast amount of time and money in developing the collection of relics held by the English church. Procuring them for vast amounts of money or significant favours from more significantly established churches on the continent, Æthelstan was able to begin building the foundations for a deep Christian tradition in England that could be tied to the physical manifestation of God’s works on Earth through the relics of the saints. There was not any other Anglo-Saxon King that showed such a devotion to the saints and the sacred as Æthelstan did. Æthelstan's dedication to the saints and Christianity was a uniting feature between his people as he incorporated new heroes into the mythos. Æthelstan's dedication to the saints and Christianity was a uniting feature between his people that he had proven to be so ready to defend. As he incorporated new heroes and saints into the country's mythological and spiritual canon, the identity of England continued to grow. 

Whilst Æthelstan's Christian nature is overtly seen in his donations to the Church and explicit worship, his deep spiritual belief is more subtly seen in his behaviour and actions. We are able to see how his Christian worship affected his actions where his actions may have differed from less pious men. Æthelstan's wisdom, is one that I would argue springs from the source of his belief.

Firstly, this can be seen in the law that Æthelstan codified. The law that Æthelstan wrote does not seem like law written by some dusty, erudite lawyer, but more closely resemble law written by a King with specific concerns in mind of the moral and spiritual nature. Whilst his law may not have yielded the desired results, many of the legal changes that Æthelstan enacted show a King with genuine concern for the well-being of his people. Where other medieval Kings were to enforce laws of loyalty and actively punish theft through the value of property over life, Æthelstan's law made a distinctly ideological statement with an extensive quotation from the book of Exodus at the start of it. Æthelstan saw theft not as a crime against himself, as other Kings did, but as crime against God. This has the makings of the sentiment that theft would be punished not for its disloyalty to the King, but its disloyalty to the fabric of society. Even more unusual in Æthelstan's enactment of the law, and even more profound, was Æthelstan's forgiveness and pardon of those criminals willing to make amends, and his revulsion at the use of the death penalty for minors. This has the baring of a King in touch with his humanity and his value of the human life. A value that stems from his Christian virtues of all Man being made equal and of worth in the eyes of God.

Æthelstan's profound Christian nature can also be seen in other peculiar law that Æthelstan's enforced, of which the ideological overtones cannot be overlooked. Æthelstan's ‘Ordinance on Charities’ obliged the feeding of the poor from the King’s reeves. This would enforce all Earl’s of Æthelstan's Kingdom to also follow this rule of charity where the destitute were to be supplied with food from Æthelstan's taxes. On top of this, Æthelstan enforced the rule that one penal slave was to be freed annually ‘for the loving kindness of God and for the attainment of eternal life’. This enforced and legally binding kindness made no economic nor moral argument for its effect. It was made from a point of theology, and thus reflects Æthelstan's Christian virtue and its impact on unification in England. Where Æthelstan won glory through the sword, he sustained it through prayer and charity.

Upbringing and Alfred Reborn

The shadow that Alfred the Great has cast on history is long, and it almost seems like all the Anglo-Saxon Kings are competing with one another for the succession of his title. It his hard to find a better contender for this title than Æthelstan. Æthelstan was marked out for greatness very early on in life in a similar way to how Alfred was.. Whilst Æthelstan’s early years remain the most obscure of his life, one aspect is clear. Once he became able to walk and talk, it seemed that he became a favourite of his grandfather. Shortly before his death, Alfred performed a symbolic ceremony for Æthelstan that marked him out above others as the likely successor for his throne and project.

Even Æthelstan’s upbringing in Mercia shows a distinct difference from his brothers that contributed to his unifying reign. Æthelstan's upbringing put him on the front lines of warfare. Æthelstan grew up fighting for and expanding his father's Kingdom in some of the most successful military campaigns against the Danes to date in Anglo-Saxon history. These battles began unsettling the power dynamics of a currently divided land of England. Thanks to this unsettling of balance, the Kingdoms of Britain were well-poised for assimilation.

Æthelstan benefited from his father, Edward the Elder's reform of Mercian towns during his reign. Edward broke up the old Anglo borders of Mercia and established new borders that divided clans amongst one another and established Saxon burghs to create newly forged communities and identities that wouldn't be nostalgic and amount rebellions against their new line of leadership. This would take a generation or two to become ingrained, but Æthelstan would reap this reward. It also certainly helped that his upbringing in Mercia would have given him a uniquely Mercian edge to his Wessex bloodline, of which his half-brothers could not claim.

Æthelstan’s reign can duly be defined as one of unification. His conquest of the Northern kingdoms and the Danelaw united a land that had once been Celtic, then Anglo, then Danish, and once again brought it under an Anglo banner and sovereignty. Æthelstan’s method of ruling this land though, allowed these newly acquired Kingdoms to retain much of their identity and leadership. This reduced any risk of internal disputes and uprisings. Æthelstan’s spirituality was also a unifying feature of his rule. It united all his Kingdoms under one belief system, and his dedication to the Saints allowed each locality to retain their own individual mythos. His personality also showed a dedication to unification. His legal reforms showed an inherent value to each and every one of his subjects. Æthelstan’s chastity was even a unifying feature, clearly designating the throne to his half-brother and not desiring a complicated succession that would descend his realm into chaos.

It is a shame that Æthelstan’s leadership has been largely forgotten by the broader consciousness, as his achievements were truly monumental. The lack of longstanding success both in history and in the success of his British project is likely a result of his lack of an heir. There is no continuation of Æthelstan’s blood, and there is therefore no ongoing story of which we can see Æthelstan’s success and story. Given he was the most likely successor to Alfred the Great, it makes sense that Æthelstan was really the final point in the Alfredian project of a unified England. No future Anglo-Saxon leader seems to have managed to live up to that ideal.